Grey Water Stats

Hungary

This knol is about my home country, Hungary.

Geographic data

Hungary is located in Central Europe, in the Carpathian Basin surrounded by the Carpathians, the Alps and the Dinara Mountains, between northern latitudes of 4544' and 4835' and eastern longitudes of 1607' and 2254'. The territory of the country is 93, 030 square kilometres, covering about 1 per cent of Europe.

The total length of the borders of the country is 2, 216.8 kilometres, of which 655.1 kilometres is the common border with Slovakia, 136.6 kilometres is shared with the Ukraine, 448 kilometres with Romania, 621.1 kilometres with the successor states of Yugoslavia (165.8 kilometres with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 355.3 km with Croatia and 100 km with Slovenia) and the border with Austria stretches on 356 kilometres.

Almost three quarters of the territory of the country is a low plain, one fifth is hilly with the maximum altitude of 400 metres, and approximately 5% of the total territory of the country is mountainous, altitudes varying between 400(1000 metres.

The highest peak in the country is the Peak of Kkes in the Mtra Hills, rising to 1014 metres. The lowest part of the country is located in the valley of the River Tisza, south of Szeged, in Gylart (78 metres). The Great Plain (Alfld) and the Small Plain (Kisalfld) are flat, the Zala and Somogy hills, the Tolna saddles in Transdanubia are hilly areas, while the mountains are represented by the Sopron and the Kszeg mountains, the Mecsek, the Transdanubia and the Northern mountain ranges.

Climate

Hungary is situated in the temperate zone, on the borderline of, and affected by, three large climatic zones: oceanic, continental and Mediterranean. It is prone to rhapsodic weather changes and, due to the relative isolation of the Carpathian Basin, the climate has a tendency for droughts, especially on the Great Plain.

The annual average mean temperature is 9.7 C in the whole of the country and 11.2 C in Budapest. The mean temperature in the hottest month, July, is 20.0 C, in the coldest month, January, 2.1 C. On a hot summer day temperatures may reach 33-38 C, while in cold winters temperature may drop to 25.0. -30.0 C.

In the central part of the Great Plain the annual average rainfall varies between 470-550 mm, in the mountains, 700-800 mm. The number of days when the land is covered with snow is relatively few. The number of hours of sunshine varies between 1700-2200 hours per year, the area between the rivers Danube and Tisza being the most sunny, while the regions with the least amount of sunshine are the Alpokalja (Lower Alps) and the Northern mountains.The annual average wind speed is 2.4 m/sec.

Flora and fauna

12.3 % of the total territory of Hungary is covered by meadows and pasture-land and a further 18.7 is covered by forests (primarily deciduous forests). Approximately 2, 200 plant species and 45, 000 animal species live in the territory of the country, the majority of which are Central European species, but there are some Northern, Eastern and South European elements as well. 535 plant and 855 animal species are protected. All caves in the territory of the country (altogether 3600) are protected, and 125 of those enjoy increased protection. Among the protected flowers, the most unique species are the Mediterranean-type fragrant hellebore (Helleborus odorus) in the Mecsek mountains, the wild peony (Paeonia officinalis var. banatica), the pheasant's eye (Adonis vernalis L.) and the sage (Salvia nutans) on the Great Plain, and the meadow anemone (Pulsatilla pratensis ssp. hungarica) in the Nyrsg, etc.

Hungarian forests are rich in roe-deer and wild boar, deer as well as foxes. (Hunting for wild game requires a license.) The lower parts and cultivated areas are home to rabbits and partridges, quails and pheasants. In spring and in autumn huge flocks move from north to south, then back, including storks and swallows, which spend the winter in Africa. Protected water birds include the aigrette (Egretta alba, in the Small Balaton and Lake Fert), the bustard (Otis tarda, South Great Plain, Kiskunsg, with the largest stock in Europe), the stilt (Himantopus himantopus), and the avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta, living in Lake Fehr near Szeged).

The rivers and lakes abound in fish, but fishing also requires a license. The carp is an autochthonous species; the wels catfish (Silurus glanis) is the largest fish, but there are many pikes, carp-breams and catfish too. The pike perch (fogas) of Lake Balaton is world famous. The eel, grass carp, silver and bighead carp have been introduced to Hungarian waters. Trout is available in large numbers in the artificial ponds in the Bkk hills (Szalajka valley). Nine national parks, 38 national landscape conservation districts, 142 national conservation areas, 1 natural monument (Aggtelek-Rudabnya-Szendr core sections) and 1125 regional conservation districts protected by local governments have been established in Hungary to date in order to safeguard the original habitat of the flora and fauna on altogether 816, 008 hectares.

National parks

The Hortobgy National Park (founded in 1972) - 80, 549 hectares (of which 1285 hectares are under increased protection), representing the largest continuous alkaline plain of the Great Plain in the Tiszntl. Since 1 December 1999 it has been part of the World Heritage. The most important sights include the famous cold-raised Hungarian grey cattle, racka (long-wool) sheep, Hungarian horses and buffalo, reminders of life on the puszta in ancient times.

Kiskunsg National Park (1975) - 56, 761 hectares (of which 12, 457 hectares are under increased protection), consisting of various landscapes between the rivers Danube and Tisza. Its main claim to fame is the unique flora and fauna of the alkaline pusztas (plain) and sand dunes.

Bkk National Park (founded in 1976) - 43, 130 hectares (of which 3774 hectares are under increased protection). It is the largest national park of the country with mountains and forests, situated in the Northern mountains, between Szilvsvrad and Lillafred. The most important sighs include the various karst formations of the limestone mountains: caves that used to be inhabited by pre-historic men, swallow-holes, ravines.

Aggtelek National Park (1985) - 19, 892 hectares (of which 3922 hectares are under increased protection), situated in North Hungary, in the Aggtelek karst region. It has been part of the World Heritage since 1995. The largest stalactite cave of Europe is situated in this area: the Baradla cave (26 km long, of which 8 km is in Slovakia, known under the name of Domica).

Fert-Hansg National Park (founded in 1991) - 23, 588 hectares (of which 7492 hectares are under increased protection), in West Hungary, alongside the Austrian border. It is famous for the unique plants, animals and cultural assets remaining from the one-time world of bogs and marshland.

Danube-Drva National Park (founded in 1996) - 49, 473 hectares (of which 14, 123 hectares are under increased protection), situated in Southern Transdanubia on a long stretch alongside the Rivers Drva and Danube. The most important sights are the natural resources related to rivers, including the game reserve in Gemenc forest.

Krs-Maros National Park (founded in 1997) - 50, 134 hectares (of which 6411 hectares are under increased protection). Situated in the South-eastern part of the country, covering the water systems of the rivers Krs and Maros and stretching all the way to the Tisza. Notable features include the unique animal and plant species only found here in Hungary, such as the bustard, its largest European population located in Dvavnya (Bks County).

Upper Balaton National Park (founded in 1997) - 56, 998 hectares (of which 11, 134 hectares are under increased protection), situated in Transdanubia, covering the region on the northern shore of Lake Balaton, together with the natural preservation district of the Small Balaton, and unique geological features and landscapes.

Danube-Ipoly National Park (founded in 1997) - 60, 314 hectares (of which 16, 119 hectares are under increased protection), to the north of Budapest, covering the majority of the Pilis and Brzsny mountains, between the Rivers Danube and Ipoly. The national park contains the picturesque Danube bend and the Szentendre island.
The tenth and eleventh national parks of the country will be opened in 2002, in in the rsg in West Hungary, covering 30-40, 000 hectares, and in the Nyrsg (Szabolcs-Szatmr-Bereg County) on approximately 100, 000 hectares.

Nathional and ethnic groups

According to the data of the 1990 census, in Hungary 98.5 % of the population (10, 222, 529 persons) have Hungarian as their mother tongue, therefore the country can be considered as a single-language national state. (More than 3 million Hungarians live over the borders of Hungary, in the neighbouring countries, since the Trianon Peace Treaty of 1920, the highest numbers living in Transylvania, which is part of Romania. Together with all the Hungarians living in other countries of the world, the number of Hungarians living abroad is estimated around five million.)

According to official census figures, the number of persons belonging to various national minorities in Hungary is relatively low. Organisations of national minorities quote higher figures than the census results; taking into consideration ancestry may be part of the explanation. According to such estimates, 200, 000-220, 000 ethnic Germans (37, 511), 100, 000-110, 000 Slovaks (12, 745), 80, 000-90, 000 Croats (17, 577), 25, 000 Romanians (8730), 5000 Serbs (2953) and 5000 Slovenes (2627) live in Hungary. The Polish minority numbers 10, 000 persons, there are 3000 Greeks, 1500 Armenians, approximately 3000 Bulgarians, 6000 Rusins and 2000 Ukrainians in our country. According to estimates the Gypsy population without a native language has 400, 000-600, 000 members (142, 683). (The data of the official census of 1990 on the use of mother tongue are included in brackets. The processing of the new data of the 2001 census is expected to be completed by the end of the year.)

The Constitution guarantees equal rights and the free use of the mother tongue to all national minorities; furthermore, on 7 July 1993 Parliament adopted an Act on the rights of national and ethnic minorities. The Office of National and Ethnic Minorities was established in 1990 to safeguard those rights.

According the preliminary data, the decreasing Hungarian population reached 10 096 persons by the end of 2004. The mortality markedly exceeds the number of live births every year, though the two indicators have somewhat converged in the last years compared to the late 90-s. The life expectancy at birth rose by 1 years between 2000 and 2003, but the 77 (female) and 68 (male) years life expectancy is one of the lowest among the developed countries.
Census figures indicate that the population grew until 1980 (with the exception of 1949), but it has been continuously declining since 1981. After the first decade following the Second World War fertility dropped, then stabilised at a low level. In the 1990s there was a further decline in the number of live births, and in 1999 the number was below 95, 000. The total fertility ratio was 1.33 in the year 2000.

Demographic rates (per thousand residents), 1949-2000

Year	Live births	Deaths	Natural increment or decline (()
1949	20.6	11.4	9.2
1960	14.7	10.2	4.5
1970	14.7	11.6	3.1
1980	13.9	13.6	0.3
1990	12.1	14.1	(1.9)
1991	12.3	14.0	(1.7)
1992	11.8	14.4	(2.6)
1993	11.4	14.6	(3.2)
1994	11.3	14.4	(3.1)
1995	11.0	14.2	(3.3)
1996	10.4	14.1	(3.7)
1997	9.9	13.7	(3.8)
1998	9.6	13.9	(4.3)
1999	9.4	14.2	(4.8)
2000	9.7	13.5	(3.8)

(Source: CSO)

Among the Hungarian population mortality declined until 1965, the it started to increase, not to stop to this date, due to the ageing of the population and because of the fast increase in the number of deaths among the male population. In recent years life expectancy at birth has been 65-66 years for the male population, while the life expectancy of the female population is on average 8-9 years longer than that of men.

Average life expectancy of the population in Hungary, 1990-1998

Average life expectancy	1990	1992	1994	1996	1998	2000
At birth
Men	65.13	64.55	64.84	66.06	66.14	67.11
Women	73.71	73.73	74.23	74.70	75.18	75.59
At the age of 40
Men	28.84	28.15	28.08	28.82	28.89	29.57
Women	36.06	35.99	36.19	36.58	36.84	37.17
At the age of 60
Men	14.72	14.52	14.66	14.88	14.95	15.29
Women	19.02	19.10	19.32	19.44	19.79	20.04

(Source: CSO)

Within the population, the ratio of sexes has shifted towards the dominance of women since the beginning of the 1980s. The male dominance at birth and in younger age cohorts turns into female dominance around the age of 40, and the dominance only increases towards older ages. According to the preliminary data of the 2001 census, 5, 333, 500 women and 4, 863, 600 men lived in Hungary (52.3:47.7 % ratio) on 1 February 2001.

In 2003 the Hungarian population continued to decrease, by 10 152 people. The mortality markedly exceeds the number of live births every year, though the two indicators have somewhat converged in the last years. The life expectancy at birth rose by 2 years between 1999 and 2001, but the 76 (female) and 68 (male) years life expectancy is one of the lowest among the developed countries.

Density of population

Hungary, with its 109.6 persons/square kilometre population density, is a densely populated country by global standards (31 January 2001). while in Europe, this figure puts it around the average. The most densely populated region of the country is Central Hungary, with Budapest having the highest density figure.

Breakdown of the population by county and region, 31 January 2001

County	Population (persons)	Area (km2)	Population density (person/km2)
Budapest	1, 775, 203	525	3381.3
Baranya	408, 019	4430	92.1
Bcs-Kiskun	546, 753	8445	64.7
Bks	397, 074	5631	70.5
Borsod-Abaj-Zempln	745, 154	7247	102.8
Csongrd	433, 388	4263	101.6
Fejr	434, 547	4359	99.7
Gyr-Moson-Sopron	434, 956	4089	106.4
Hajd-Bihar	553, 043	6211	89.0
Heves	325, 673	3637	89.5
Jsz-Nagykun-Szolnok	415, 819	5582	74.5
Komrom-Esztergom	316, 780	2265	139.8
Ngrd	220, 576	2544	86.7
Pest	1, 080, 759	6393	169.0
Somogy	335, 463	6036	55.5
Szabolcs-Szatmr-Bereg	582, 795	5937	98.2
Tolna	250, 062	3703	67.5
Vas	268, 653	3336	80.5
Veszprm	374, 346	4613	81.1
Zala	298, 056	3784	78.7
TOTAL	10, 197, 119	93, 030	109.6
Region
Central Hungary	2, 855, 962	6918	412.8
Central Transdanubia	1, 125, 673	11, 237	99.5
Western Transdanubia	1, 001, 665	11, 209	90.0
Southern Transdanubia	993, 544	14, 169	69.8
Northern Hungary	1, 291, 403	13, 428	96.2
Northern Great Plain	1, 551, 657	17, 730	87.4
Southern Great Plain	1, 377, 215	18, 339	75.4

Public administration

For public administration purposes, Hungary is divided into 19 counties and the capital city; Budapest is divided into 23 districts. Main public administration units: the capital city, counties, towns and villages. Amending the Act XXI of 1996, the Act XCII of 1999 divided Hungary into regions in accordance with the requirements of the European Union. Since then, Hungary has established seven planning statistical regions, which cover whole counties, and county and regional development councils have also been established.

Hungarian regions:

Central Hungary (Budapest and Pest County),
Central Transdanubia (Fejr, Komrom-Esztergom and Veszprm Counties),
Western Transdanubia (Gyr-Moson-Sopron, Vas and Zala Counties),
Southern Transdanubia (Baranya, Somogy and Tolna Counties),
Northern Hungary (Borsod-Abauj-Zempln, Heves and Ngrd Counties),
Northern Great Plain (Hajd-Bihar, Jsz-Nagykun-Szolnok and Szabolcs-Szatmr-Bereg Counties)
Southern Great Plain (Bcs-Kiskun, Bks and Csongrd Counties).

The country consists of 19 county and a capital territory. The counties (county capitals) are:

Regions of Hungary

Hungary's largestregion is the Southern Great Plain. Four regions have an average size and the smallest one is Central Hungary. The main explanation of that is the predominant role played by Budapest the capital of Hungary (and the natural centre of Central Hungary.

Hungary's largest NUTS-2 region is the Southern Great Plain with its 18 339 km2 area, a bit smaller is the Northern Great Plain with 17 729 km2 (inner circle). Four regions have an average size and the smallest one is Central Hungary. However the central region has a population of 2.831 million, i.e. in the 7.4% of the country's area lives 27.9% of the total population (outer circle), while in the other regions the distribution of the area is proportional to that of the population.

In Hungary, one significant disparity between the distribution of area and population can be detected. In Hungary's smallest NUTS-2 region (Central Hungary) lives the 28% of the whole Hungarian population. Of course, the explanation is that Budapest is in this region. The rate of the urban population is as big as 80% here, as opposed to most of the other regions, where this rate is between 55 and 68%. Maybe surprisingly, in Northern Hungary containing the former industrial cities zd and Miskolc, half of the people live in the countryside.

In 2002 the GDP per head reached 88% of the EU-15-average in the central region. The second most developed is Western Transdanubia with its 55% value, but in the other five regions the level of development is less then half of the EU-15 average, and in Northern Hungary and Northern Great Pain even less than 40% of it. In line with the regional development, investment per head and foreign direct investment (FDI) per head are significantly higher in Central-Hungary. The two north-western regions, Western and Central Transdanubia are in a relatively good position in this respect, meanwhile the four other regions lag markedly behind.

There is a trade-off between activity rate and unemployment rate in the Hungarian regions: in those, where activity rate is higher, one finds lower unemployment (Central Hungary, Central-Transdanubia and Western-Transdanubia) and conversely: lower activity goes with higher unemployment (especially in Northern Hungary). Moreover, in the two regions of the Great Plain and in Northern Hungary dependency rate is also above the national average. This is caused by not only the higher inactivity but also the higher rate of the non-working-aged population.

Looking at the gross average wages one can meet with relatively big differences, too. In 2003, only the gross wages in Central Hungary (HUF 174 thousands) exceeded significantly the national average (HUF 139 thousands). In all of the other regions, wages fell short of the national average; especially in the two regions of the Great Plains.

Constitution

The effective constitution of Hungary is the Constitution of 1949 together with its amendments. Since the amendment to the Constitution proclaimed on 23 October 1989 the form of the Hungarian state has been a parliamentary republic. The Republic of Hungary is an independent and democratic state.
The Constitution is composed of 78 articles and nearly 400 phrases. Its chapters:

general provisions,
the National Assembly,
the President of the Republic,
the Constitutional Court,
the parliamentary commissioner for citizen's rights and the parliamentary commissioner for national and ethnic minority rights,
the State Audit Office and the National Bank of Hungary,
the government,
the armed forces and the police,
the local governments,
the judiciary,
the office of the public prosecutor,
the fundamental rights and obligations,
the basic principles of elections,
the capital and national symbols of the Republic of Hungary,
closing provisions.

Election System

Act XXXIV of 1989 on parliamentary election applies a mixed system of electorates:

176 seats are to be won in individual constituencies 152 seats on twenty regional (county, capital) lists, and
58 seats from a national list. The Hungarian election system calls for two votes: voters cast one vote on a candidate of the individual constituency and may choose from the regional party lists by the other vote. In individual constituencies the recommendation of at least 750 voters in required for candidacy. A political party may set up a regional list if it has candidates in one-quarter of the individual constituencies but in at least two constituency. At least seven regional lists are required for a national list. 5 percent of the total valid votes cast nationwide on the party lists is required for a party to get into the National Assembly.

Government

Executive power - government functions and the highest-level control of public administration - is exercised by the government, in which the Prime Minister plays a dominant role. The National Assembly elects the Prime Minister on the basis of the principle of parliamentary majority, concurrently approving the government programme. The government is constituted upon the appointment of ministers and their ministerial oath. The establishment of ministries is the prerogative of the National Assembly'; their list is set out in law. Ministries are headed by the ministers, who are members of the government. Senior officials of the ministries are the political and administrative under-secretaries.

The ministries of the Republic of Hungary in july 2008: Prime Minister's Office, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour; Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development, Ministry for National Development and Economy, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement, Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Education and Culture, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Transport, Telecommunication and Energy.
After the free election of 1990 the Hungarian Democratic Forum (Magyar Demokrata Frum - MDF) formed a coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (Fggetlen Kisgazda Prt - (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (Keresztny Demokrata Npprt - KDNP). The Prime Minister of the Republic of Hungary became Jzsef Antall, president of MDF, who filled this office until his death on 12 December 1993. For the remainder of the election term, Minister of Interior Pter Boross headed the government.

Between 1994-1998 the coalition established by the Hungarian Socialist Party (Magyar Szocialista Prt -MSZP) and the Alliance of Free Democrats (Szabaddemokratk Szvetsge -SZDSZ) was in office; the Prime Minister was Gyula Horn, president of MSZP.

Following the elections in 1998 Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (Fidesz Magyar Polgri Prt), FKGP and MDF established a government coalition headed by Viktor Orbn, then chairman of Fidesz. In addition to the Prime Minister, heads of 13 ministries and two ministers without portfolio made up the 18-member cabinet. The head of the Prime Minister's Office, also had the rank of minister.

After the elections in 2002 a coalition was formed by MSZP and SZDSZ again headed by Pter Medgyessy of MSZP. A cabinet of 15 ministers make up the government. A new ministry of IT was created and two ministries were cancelled.

After Pter Medgyessy's resign (september, 2004) former businessman and party member of MSZP Ferenc Gyurcsny became the new Prime Minister, . The new government was formed at 4. oktober 2004. The coalition of MSZP-SZDSZ won the parlamentary elections again in 2006, the second Gyurcsny-government formed on the 9th of June. On the 30th of April 2008, SZDSZ decided to quit the coalition.

Judiciary System

The function of the judiciary system is to serve justice, the main forms of which are: - criminal justice - civil justice - controlling the legality of administrative decisions.

In the Republic of Hungary, the judiciary consist of the Supreme Court, the courts of appeal, the county (metropolitan) courts and the local (metropolitan district) courts.

The administration of courts is the responsibility of the National Judicial Council (Orszgos Igazsgszolgltatsi Tancs). The chairman of the Supreme Court since 1990 and the president of the National Judicial Council since 1997: Dr. Pl Solt.

In the judiciary, the state's punitive power is represented by the public prosecutor. The Prosecutor General has been Dr. Pter Polt since 2000.

National Symbols

(Act LXXXIII of 1995 provides for the use of national symbols.)

Coat-of-arms

Pursuant to Act XLIV of 1990, the coat-of-arms of the Republic of Hungary is the so-called crowned, lesser historical coat-of-arms. The coat-of-arms of the Republic of Hungary is a pointed, impaled shield. Its first field has a bary of eight, gules (red) and argent (silver). The other, gules field has a patriarchal cross argent rising from a crown or (gold) on a triple mound vert (green). The shield is ensigned with the Hungarian Holy Crown.

Flag

The flag of the Republic of Hungary is a tricolour consisting of horizontal red, white and green bands of equal width, the bands.

Anthem

Since 23 October 1989, the national anthem of the Republic of Hungary has officially been also in public law terms the poem Himnusz by Ferenc Klcsey (1790-1838) written in 1823, to which Ferenc Erkel (1810-1893) composed music in 1844. On official occasions, usually the first of the eight stanzas is played: Isten, ldd meg a magyart
J kedvvel, bsggel,
nyjts felje vd kart,
Ha kzd ellensggel;
Bal sors akit rgen tp,
Hozz r vg esztendt,
Megbnhdte mr e np
A mltat s jvendt! (O, my God, the Magyar bless
With Thy plenty and good cheer!
With Thine aid his just cause press,
Where his foes to fight appear.
Fate, who for so long did'st frown,
Bring him happy times and ways;
Atoning sorrow hath weighed down
Sins of past and future days.) (Translated by William N. Loew)

Act I of 2000 commemorates the foundation of the state by St. Stephen and the Holy Crown. The Holy Crown, the historical symbol of the Hungarian Kingdom and the royal insignia (the sceptre, the orb and the coronation sword) - except for the coronation robe - have been on display in the building of the Parliament since 1 January 2001.

National holidays

According to the Act VIII of 1991 national holidays are: 15 March, the beginning of the revolution and war of independence of 1848-1849, the date when modern parliamentary democracy was born;

20 August, holiday of Saint Stephen, founder of the state;

23 October, the date when the revolution and war of independence of 1956 started and when the Republic of Hungary was proclaimed in 1989.

Of the above holidays, the National Assembly declared 20 August to be official state holiday.

National Assembly

Following the free elections the new parliamentary bodies passed several hundred new laws, amendments to laws and resolutions during the past two terms of Parliament (1990-1994 and 1994-1998), which created the institutional and legislative framework for the evolution of a democratic rule of law and a market economy. Amendments to the Constitution and major decisions require a majority of two-thirds.

The Hungarian National Assembly has continuous sessions, the ordinary sessions taking place twice a year: in the spring and in the autumn. Control by the National Assembly is exercised through questions, interpellations (ministerial questions) and committees of the National Assembly. Independent controlling bodies of Parliament: the State Audit Office and the parliamentary commissioner for citizens' rights (ombudsman). The State Audit Office has been in operation since 1990, and the ombudsmen commenced their activities in 1995.

The officers of the National Assembly are the chairman, the deputy chairmen and the notaries.

The Table Office is an important body of the National Assembly; its members are the chairman, the vice chairmen and the fraction leaders. The National Assembly establishes the standing committees in its first session.

The National Assembly elects the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, members of the Constitutional Court, the parliamentary commissioners for citizens (ombudsmen), the chairman of the Supreme Court and the Prosecutor General.

Parliamentary Elections

In 1990 (25 March and 8 April), in the first free multi-party parliamentary elections for over forty years, 30 parties proposed candidates, 12 had national lists and six won seats in Parliament (the figures in brackets indicate the number of their respective seats on 2 May 1990, in the first session of the National Assembly):

- Hungarian Democratic Forum (Magyar Demokrata Frum, MDF) (165 seats),
- Alliance of Free Democrats (Szabad Demokratk Szvetsge, SZDSZ) (94),
- Independent Smallholders', Land Workers' and Civil Party (Fggetlen Kisgazda-, Fldmunks- s Polgri Prt, FKGP) (44),
- Hungarian Socialist Party (Magyar Szocialista Prt, MSZP) (33),
- Alliance of Young Democrats (Fiatal Demokratk Szvetsge, Fidesz) (22),
- Christian Democratic People's Party (Keresztnydemokrata Npprt, KDNP) (21),
- independent Members of Parliament (7).

In the next elections in 1994 (8 May and 29 May) 15 parties were able to put up national lists. The proportion of seats in the National Assembly after the elections turned out as follows (on 28 June 1994 in the first session of the National Assembly):

- MSZP (209),
- SZDSZ (69),
- MDF (38),
- FKGP (26),
- KDNP (22),
- Fidesz (20),
- Agricultural Alliance (1),
- Liberal Civil Alliance - entrepreneurs (1).

In the third free elections in 1998 (10 May and 24 May) twenty parties proposed individual candidates, 12 were able to propose national lists, and six parties got into the National Assembly (their seats in the first session of the National Assembly on 18 June 1998):

- Fidesz (148)
- MSZP (134)
- FKGP (48)
- SZDSZ (24)
- MDF (17)
- MIP (14)
- independent (1).

In the fourth free elections in 2002 (7 April and 21 May) 21 parties proposed individual candidates, 9 were able to propose national lists, and 4 parties got into the National Assembly (their seats when announcing the official results of the elections at 4 May 2002):

- Fidesz-MDF (188)
- MSZP (178)
- SZDSZ (19)
-MSZP-SZDSZ (1)

In the fifth free elections in 2006 (9 April and 23 April) 21 parties proposed individual candidates, 10 of them were able to propose national list. Four parties plus one candidate from the Association For Somogy Countygot into the National Assembly. Their seats when announcing the official results is as follows:

MSZP: 186
Fidesz-KDNP: 164
SZDSZ: 18
MDF: 11
MSZP-SZDSZ: 6
SOMOGYRT: (For SOMOGY): 1

History

Before the Hungarians, Settlement and the Kings of the rpd Dynasty (896-1301)

Hungary is located in the heart of Europe, in the Carpathian Basin, surrounded by the Carpathian mountain chain, the Alps and the southern Slav mountains. This area has, since the dawn of civilization, been inhabited by human beings, a meeting point where cultures blended together. From the first century B.C. people on horseback - the Scythes - of Iranian extraction, and Indo-European tribes /Celtic, Illyrian and Thracian/ that pursued a more or less settled existence constantly replaced one another.

In the final stages of the expansion of the Roman empire, for a short while the Carpathian Basin fell into the sphere of the Mediterranean, Greco-Roman civilization - town centers, paved roads, and written sources were all part of the advances to which the Migration of Peoples put an end.

Germanic and Turkish /Hun and Avar/ tribes attacking from the east then appeared in the region. From the beginning of the 3rd century onwards Rome was gradually forced onto the defensive, and around the year 430 AD, bowing to Hun sieges, it ultimately surrendered its Carpathian Basin province of Pannonia.

The famous Hun king, Attila, operated his powerful but short-lived empire from the River Tisza. Upon his death the Hun empire disintegrated and Germanic tribes again split up the region. However, their hegemony was soon smashed by the advent of the Avars. Their empire, established by the end of the 6th century, was destroyed by the wars launched by Charlemagne /around 790/ and Bulgarian attacks from the Danube.

Transdanubia marked the eastern province of the declining Frankish empire. Bulgarians ruled the Hungarian Great Plain and Transylvania, while in the north there was the state of the Morvas, these peoples formed the status quo in the Carpathian Basin at the time of the arrival of the Magyars.

The settlement of the Hungarians and the rule of Saint Stephen (896-1038)
The true origin, dating back thousands of years, of the Hungarians has never been fully clarified by science. One of the prevailing theories - that their ancestral home was located on the Asian side of the Ural mountains, and their predecessors belong to the Finnish-Ugric family of the Ural peoples - is verifiable linguistically. They may well have split away from their northwestern kinfolk at an early stage, while in the first half of the first millennium B.C. they were to be found southwest of the Urals, grazing their animals in the eastern Hungarian ancestral homeland /Magna Hungaria, Bashkiria/ located along the river Volga. One thousand years later they joined the mass movements of peoples, travelling to the steppes /Levdia and Etelkz area/ where the rivers flow into the Black Sea. They may well have established contacts with Turkish peoples, but archaeology can present only Turkish elements /onogor - this is where the word Hungar comes from/ from those areas.

One group of scholars considers that Hungarians reached the Carpathian Basin as early as in the 7th century as part of the renewed waves of the mass migration of peoples, but it is certain that from the middle of the 800s they were familiar with the area as their fighters, at times allies of the Franks and then of the Morva tribes, engaged in battle for territory. Here they learnt not only of the excellent natural potential of the Carpathian Basin, but also about the weak points of the allies, and the power vacuum that had developed in the region. These factors as well as in an effort to seek refuge from the attacks of the Turkish Pechenegs were instrumental in prompting them, in the year 895, to set off together with their women, children and animals toward the Carpathian Basin in search of a new homeland.

Legend has it that prior to the great venture, the occupation of the new homeland, rpd chose a prince from among themselves. rpd was successful in carrying out the huge task facing the tribes-people archeological finds confirm that the organized resettlement of the about 500, 000 Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin was achieved at the cost of relatively few casualties.

the heads of the seven Hungarian tribes, espousing eastern customs, sealed their alliance with a treaty sealed in blood, and in the person of

In their new abode the conquering Hungarians continued their way of life supplementing animal grazing with tilling of the land, while their warriors -
similarly to the Vikings - pushed forward into Europe to plunder. Finally German King Otto dealt them a blow at the battle of Augsburg /955/ which stopped further forays.

rpds descendants realized that a precondition to the survival of Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin was the need to establish a European pattern of settled existence. This principally meant the espousal of Christianity and the establishment of a state organization. rpds great grandson, Gza /died 997/, had himself christened, but according to chronicles he continued to make sacrifices to heathen gods, although he made his son, the later Saint Stephen, a genuine Christian ruler. He invited the foremost German baptists of the age to educate him, entertained German knights at his court, and requested that Gizella, sister of the Bavarian king, be betrothed to his son.

Gza achieved his goal, and his son King Stephen I /997-1038/ pursued his fathers policies, building up a strong, Western-style Chirstian state in the Carpathian Basin. He made respect for the tenets of Christianity obligatory for all subjects of the state, established a church organization encompassing the entire country, and obliged the settlements to build churches and organize themselves into dioceses. He settled monks in Hungary, who apart from disseminating the new faith taught local inhabitants about gardening, wine cultivation and various handicraft skills. They laid the foundations of a literate strata which provided for the establishment of the legislative and administrative system in keeping with the age.

In the year 1000 Stephen had himself crowned king. He asked the pope in Rome to send a crown for the service, thus stressing his commitment to Western-type Christianity. One by one he overcame those tribal chieftains who resisted the new religion and system, confiscating their properties and establishing in lieu the counties under the control of the king. These - as a matter of course with a number of changes over the centuries - form the basis of the countys system of public administration to the present day. As a result of the tremendous activities of Stephen /who was canonized in 1038/ the new homeland, captured in 895, was transformed into a modern, Christian and European state which in the kings own lifetime was strong enough to defy the hegemonic aspirations of the Holy Roman Empire and to defeat campaigns launched by Emperor Konrad II.

The age of King Stephens successors in the rpd dynasty (1038-1301)
Of Stephens successors, Lszl I /1077-1096/ and Klmn I /1096-1116/ imposed stringent laws to ensure their subjects respected the authority of the State, ownership relations and Christian values. y the end of the 11th century Hungary, which had risen to become a Central European power, acted as conqueror in the east and south. Campaigns launched into what is Galicia and Ukraine today were without success, but Croatia recognized the supremacy of the rpd dynasty in 1091.

The age of weaker monarchs saw the giving away of crown properties, the basis of centralized royal power, which - and this also mirrored the West European pattern of progress - resulted in the development of an ever more structured, multi-layered feudal society. This soon necessitated the introduction of some constitutional structure, one of whose central basic documents was the Golden Bull /1222/ issued by Andrs /Andrew/ II. resist the king and who, in keeping with his pledge, were convened by the king for annual feudal national assemblies.

Historians are justified in comparing it to the English Magna Carta drawn up in 1215. This deed determined the various noblemen - barons and gentry - as privileged members of the kingdom, who were entitled to

The relatively steady progress was interrupted in 1240 and 1242 by the dramatic incursion and ruthless ransacking of the country by Tartar /Mongol/ forces, who swept across the country scorching the land and forcing the king and his court to flee to the Adriatic. One third of the country's population was killed during the single year of the Tartar invasion. King Bla IV /1235-1270/ was, with some justifications, dubbed the "second home founder" as he had to rebuild the scorched country practically from scratch.
By establishing a series of stone castles he created a strong defensive system, he invited settlers to unsettled parts of the country, and reorganized life in the country by pursuing tolerant and persistent policies.

fter his death the strengthened nobility exploited its new positions ever more successfully, and the aspirations of provincial lords for independence began to erode the unity of King Stephens state. The situation was further aggravated by a near two-decade struggle for the Hungarian crown following the demise of the rpd dynasty.

The Medieval Hungarian State and the Turkish Conquest (1301-1526)

The rpd dynasty died out in 1301. The Anjou dynasty emerged triumphant from the rivalry between European dynasties, and snatched the Hungarian crown. During the rule of Kroly /Charles/ I /1307-1342/ and Lajos /Louis/ the Great/1342-1382/, the two Hungarian kings from the Anjou dynasty, Hungary started to flourish again. By pursuing a healthy tax policy and monetary reform, and by more effectively exploiting the rich Hungarian mines, Charles I managed to consolidate his grip on power. In 1335 he called together the kings of Bohemia and Poland, and at the so-called "Visegrd summit" he established the first Central European alliance by initiating political and trade co-operation.

The rule of the second Anjou king is memorable primarily due to his policy of conquests, reflecting the considerable strengthening of the country. As a result of the wars waged by "the knight king", Hungary's southern borders touched Bulgaria, the new Romanian principalities /Moldavia and Wallachia/ swore feudal allegiance, and Venice yielded Dalmatia. Hungary had grown to become a Central European great power, and it managed to retain that status up until 1490, the death of King Matthias. A cultural boom and the foundations of the first Hungarian university /Pcs, 1372/ bear witness to the fact that the Hungary of the Anjous flourished while Western Europe was in crisis.

King Louis died without a male successor, and the country was stabilized only after years of anarchy when Sigismund of Luxembourg /1387-1437/ took the throne. It was not for entirely selfless reasons that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties, and the restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades of work. The consolidation of his rule was primarily cemented by his international prestige. In 1410 he was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Sigismund did much to restore the peace and unity of the empire, but proved powerless in the face of the Turkish threat which had an enormous impact on Hungary's history in the next three centuries.

Turkish Ottoman troops attacking from the Balkans crossed the Sea of Marmora and stepped onto European soil in 1354 within a few decades they had subjugated Serbia, Bosnia and Albania and the Romanian principalities, and pushed ahead in an unstoppable wave towards the heart of Europe. Sigismunds crusading army suffered a defeat at the hands of these formidable conquerors in the 1396 battle of Nikpoly. At this point the Turks posed an immediate threat to Hungary.

The fall of Hungary was prevented by the legendary commander Jnos Hunyadi. From a small noble family in Transylvania, Jnos Hunyadi grew to become one of the country's most powerful lords thanks to his outstanding capabilities as a commander. He organized an army from the revenues of properties he was granted in exchange for his military successes, in which army soldiers from all peoples in the Balkans threatened by Ottoman rule fought alongside one another. In 1456 the outcome of the battle waged for Nndorfehrvr /Belgrade/ was closely watched by the whole of Europe, and in the wake of the news of his victory thanksgiving festivities were staged across the Continent.
Through his victorious campaigning which "Turk beater" Jnos Hunyadi led for nearly 20 years, the further expansion of the Ottoman empire was warded off for another century.

This legendary commander died of the plague which erupted in his camp at the pinnacle of his success, after the victory won at Nndorfehrvr. His family, however, provided yet another scion who would go into Hungarian history. His son Mtys /Matthias/ Hunyadi who, thanks to the prestige of his father, was elected king in 1458 when still a teenager, grew up to become one of the greatest monarchs of medieval Hungary.

King Matthias established a strong centralized monarchy with stable revenues, a highly qualified clerical staff under his personal supervision, and a powerful and reliable army of mercenaries /the "black army"/, at the head of which he conquered Moravia, Silesia, and a considerable part of Austria with Vienna.
Renowned as the "just Matthias" of folk tales, he maintained one of the most luxurious Renaissance courts in contemporary Europe in Buda and at the scenic Visegrd overlooking the Danube.

His library /the "Corvina"/ comprised one of the greatest collections in Europe at that time, and he played host to many famous artists and scholars. Matthias waged no major offensive campaigns against the Turks, merely wanting to ensure the status quo attained by his father along the country's southern borders. Instead his attention was riveted on the west and north: the objective of his dynastic aspirations was to establish a strong "Danube empire" that would represent an appropriate counterweight to the Ottoman empire.

The fall of the medieval Hungarian stateand the Turkish conquest (1490-1526)

Matthias died prematurely and without a legal successor in 1490. The powerless rulers from the Jagell dynasty that followed bought the benevolence of ever more unbridled lords by granting them concessions. Hungary's international role was wasted, its political stability shaken, and social progress was deadlocked. Matthiass conquests - Moravia, Silesia and part of Austria - were lost.

The constant infighting and unlawful acts committed during the feudal anarchypeasant war of 1514, which is part of the European peasant revolt from the Hussite uprisings to 1525 German peasant war. The uprising led by Gyrgy Dzsa imposed intolerable burdens on the peasantry in Hungary. Their bitterness resulted in the was brutally crushed and the lords took revenge. Hungary was in a state of anarchy and discord when the Ottoman Empire, by now near the peak of its power, prepared itself to wage a new campaign against Europe, and subsequently reached Hungary's southern borders.

The dreaded event occurred at the battle of Mohcs in 1526. The 70, 000-80, 000-strong army led by Suleiman I /The Great/ /1520-1566/ reached the battlefield on August 29. The Hungarian army, outnumbered three to one, mad a vain attempt to halt the advance: in just 90 minutes the cream of the infantry and Hungarian elite was lost. The Hungarian King, Lajos /Louis/ II /1515-1526/, was drowned in a swollen stream while fleeing. The Sultan marched into Buda, capital of Hungary, two weeks later.

A Country Divided into Three (1526-1686)

After the defeat at the battle of Mohcs the country was torn into three parts: the central section, the so-called Conquered part, was occupied by Turkish forces. The western and northern parts, so-called Royal Hungary, were governed by Ferdinand of Habsburg who took the Hungarian throne, while east of the river Tisza a new state was in effect established, the Transylvanian Principality.

Since the Turkish conquerors settled in the middle of the country, Hungary became a buffer zone between two cultures, European Christian and Turkish Moslem. The actual borders of the occupied central part of the country were in a state of constant flux, since fighting continued - with interruptions of varying duration - for 150 years to conquer castles or recapture them. These wars did tremendous damage to the cultural heritage and economy of the country, as well as to the population. Generations of Hungarian soldiers perished and the Turks carried many residents away from the country to work elsewhere as slaves.
Virtually no stone or brick building was left intact in what had been the richest parts of the country /in today's Voivodina and the middle of the country. The systematic destruction perpetrated by the Turks fundamentally changed the medieval pattern of settlements and transformed the ethnic composition of the population. The Hungary of King Matthias was inhabited by four million people - as was contemporary England. In the next two centuries the population of Europe doubled, but Hungary had only 3 million residents by the middle of the 17th century. Balkan ethnic groups fleeing the Turks joined the dwindling number of Hungarian residents in the central areas that faced the greatest vicissitudes. They were later joined by Slovaks settling down following the routing of the Turks, and as a result of subsequent settlements Germans, Serbs and Romanians also moved here.

The lords of the so-called Royal Hungary elected Ferdinand of Habsburgto the throne which had fallen vacant following the tragic Battle of Mohcs, thus recognizing his claims for inheritance. Their decision was to a considerable extent influenced by the realization that they needed support in the face of the Turkish world empire, and they hoped to obtain it from the Habsburg dynasty that was beginning to play an ever more important role European great power politics. Their calculations proved correct, since the neighboring Habsburg empire threatened by the
Turks had a vested interest in the liberation of Hungary, and therefore the royal treasury - from funds collected from other provinces of the Habsburg Empire - continuously allocated huge sums for the maintenance of the about 100 fortresses in Royal Hungary, and provided for their defenders. On the other hand Hungarians frequently waited in vain for help pledged by the emperor in their bloody battles, since assistance was funneled in line with the interests of the Habsburg dynasty rather than Hungarian interests.

The establishment of a peaceful relationship between the king and his people was facilitated by the fact that the Habsburgs also relied on the Hungarians in the face of a Turkish threat, ad so they respected the Hungarian constitution. The Hungarian system of institutions, ranging from the national assembly to the counties, remained virtually intact. The posts of national dignitaries were filled by Hungarian lords who often maintained princely courts in their castles. The royal offices headquartered in distant Vienna barely interfered in domestic matters, and Hungarian lords could run their own affairs in keeping with their own traditions.

Transylvania, the eastern part of the country torn into three parts, constituted a separate zone for the Turks who were more interested in pushing on towards Vienna, and in which they satisfied themselves with taxation and indirect checks alone. Thus a Transylvanian Principality could be established in the eastern part of Hungary, which was dependent on the Sultan in foreign affairs but which ran its own internal affairs, and slowly gained in strength to the point where some of its outstanding princes appeared to be more sovereign European rulers than the governorship of the Sultan.

The Transylvanian Principality was forced to walk a tightrope between the
two major powers, the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empires. The rulers of Transylvania, by surrendering to the day to day demands of survival while at times also bowing to their egotistical interests, often established conflicting alliances. However, their most outstanding leaders, Istvn Bthori, Gbor Bethlen and Gyrgy Rkczi I, were always guided by the objective to rout the Turks, a plan they wished to achieve by grouping forces in the western and eastern parts of the country, and reuniting Hungary. Later they were to resist the excessive Habsburg influence on Hungary.

The division and the Turkish occupation transformed the country's economic and social pattern. With virtual non-stop warfare stock raising became the only profitable activity since cattle - in times of need - could be rescued on foot, and to maintain them one only needed ample grazing areas and empty wasteland, of which thanks to the constant fighting Hungary had no shortage. In the 1580s Hungary was the worlds biggest meat exporter. In the long run, however, the successful cattle export market had its own harmful effects on the pattern of the economy since it just continued the lopsided progress, represented by a backwardness in industrial development, which had been typical of the Hungarian economic structure.

Noblemen and the wealthier burghers fled to Transylvania or to Royal Hungary while peasants living in the scorched areas became soldiers in those castles still left in the hands of Christian troops. The constant movement associated with fighting, flight and trade was typical of the entire era, and of all social sections, and it had much to do with the preservation in the country's population of an awareness of national unity and common resistance against the Turks.

It is thought largely due to the anti-Turkish unity that denominational strife during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation /fights which claimed so many victims in Western Europe/ took place peacefully in Hungary, despite the fact that the new ideas influenced all sections of society. Religious disputes gave tremendous impetus, instead of destruction, to the development of Hungarian culture and Hungarian literacy. In 1570, as first among all European countries, the Transylvanian national assembly declares in a law the free practice of Catholic, Reformed /Calvinist/, Lutheran and Unitarian religions.

It was apparent in the early 1600s that the Ottoman Empire was no longer capable of adding to its European territories, but by the end of the century it still represented a significant power which implied that its expulsion from Hungary could only take place as a result of European cohesion. Events were accelerated by the abortive Turkish attack on Vienna in 1683. Subsequently at the initiative of Pope Innocent XI the Habsburg Empire, Poland and Venice established the Holy Alliance which - supplemented by further members - liberated Buda in 1686 from 145 years of Turkish rule. The allied forces continued their push forward and the entire Hungarian territory was cleansed of Turks under the greatest European commanders, Charles, prince of Lotharingia, Emanuel Miksa, Bavarian prince, and Prince Eugene of Savoy.

The fact that the empires forces played a decisive role in the final routing of the Turks only amplified the long-standing absolutist aspirations of the Vienna court. The triumphant emperor treated the liberated parts of the country as conquered provinces. He managed to force the national assembly to renounce the rights of Hungarians guaranteed since the Golden Bull, the right to freely choose a king and the right to resist the king. The Austrian court then redistributed the reconquered territories by passing the rights of established property owners on to its own followers, and had the country - which by now was virtual wasteland - pay the cost of liberation in the form of military taxes.

Achievement of Middle Class Status, Reform and Revolution (1790-1849)

The dilemmas posed by independence and modernization - or in the phrase of the time "homeland and progress" - were raised by an era of general national awakening in Central Eastern Europe. The Hungarian people, like other people in the region, crossed the threshold of the 19th century with a structure relying on social and economic reforms. The stark differences apparent in the progress that started up within agrarian society and the conservative conduct of the administration drew attention to the principles of the market economy and liberal constitutionalism.

Just as the Enlightenment first found a home in the castles and gentry mansions of Hungary, so the main basis of liberalism was constituted by the unusually large number of noblemen, who supplemented their income from civil occupations, who had a firm political consciousness and who looked back on great traditions. Count Istvn Szchenyi /1791-1860/, the greatest representative of Hungarian noble liberalism who followed English ideals, realized that the feudal system and not subordination to Vienna was the prime cause of Hungary's backwardness. With his highly influential theoretical works and modern practical activities he gained everlasting fame by reforming the then predominant view. He sacrificed much of his private property for public goals. Szchenyi's name is associated with the foundation of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences /1825/, river regulation, steam shipping and rail transport in Hungary, and initiating the first permanent bridge connecting Buda and Pest, the Chain bridge. Lajos Kossuth, his prime political debating partner, justly called him the greatest Hungarian.

Lajos Kossuth, another outstanding Hungarian politician of the era, represented a more radical line than Szchenyi, and appealed to the general public. From 1841 he edited one of the first modern political press products in the Habsburg Empire, the Pesti Hrlap. Kossuth stressed that the earliest possible liberation of the serfs was the only possible way of avoiding social explosion. Between 1832 and 1848 the opposition dominated by Kossuth wrested major achievements at "reform national assemblies", and in 1847 the now formally established Opposition Party openly set itself the goal of establishing a modern, responsible and representative government in Hungary rid of the tutelage of Vienna and of feudal bonds. It was in this heady intellectual and excited political atmosphere that the 1848 European wave of revolution washed over Hungary.

In the wake of news about the revolutions of Palermo and particularly in Paris, the opposition sitting at the Pozsony diet in March 1848 exerted ever more pressure on the royal court to get its reform proposals accepted. The exciting news of the revolution in Vienna then provoked the revolution in Pest on March 15, 1848. Sndor Petofi, one of the greatest Hungarian poets, and his associates, heading an enthusiastic crowd and ignoring censorship, had their Twelve Points containing the essence of the liberal reform programs printed. The royal court backed down and opened negotiations with a delegation representing the national assembly and headed by Kossuth on the constitutional process.

The results of the negotiations, the so-called "April acts", abolished the centuries old tax exemption of the nobility, while the liberation and equality
of serfs before the law was declared, and civil rights were introduced. A joint and responsible government was appointed for Hungary and Transylvania which earlier had been treated as separate legislative units, with Pest and Buda as its headquarters, and under the leadership of Lajos Batthyny. Hungary was only linked to the Habsburg empire by the ruler, and it achieved the greatest possible independence within the framework of the empire.

However, as soon as the Vienna administration could take breath after the revolution in Austria had lost its momentum in September 1848, it mobilized Croatian leader Jelasic and launched an armed attack against Hungary. Hungarians were compelled to defend their constitutional rights won legitimately and in a bloodless revolution by launching a freedom fight.

The heroic War of Independence continued with varying military fortune for nearly a year. Its fate was finally sealed by the alliance of Emperor Joseph Francis I with the Russian czar, in the wake of which a 200, 000-strong Russian interventionist army crossed the Carpathian mountains to attack the Hungarians in June 1849. Hungarian forces were unable to resist the overwhelming strength of the combined Austrian and Russian forces. The last major Hungarian army laid down its arms on August 13, 1849.

Neo-Absolutism and the Happy Times of Peace (1849-1914)

The political consequence of the military defeat lay in the execution of about 150 persons, the imprisonment of thousands of others, and the limitation of the entire constitutional process. Hungary was merged into the Habsburg empire to be governed by a common, centralized bureaucracy, and the backward character of agriculture and hierarchic relations of society remained practically unchanged. The Hungarian political elite attempted to hamper the operation of the repressive machinery by adopting a so-called policy of "passive resistance" and by rejecting all offices.

By the middle of the 1860s a series of disastrous wars waged by the Habsburgs had isolated Austria internationally and exhausted its treasury, while the lengthy period of passive resistance had also caused problems for the Hungarian elite. The situation was ripe for compromise. Negotiations aimed at reaching a reconciliation were started at the initiative of Ferenc Dek, the "wise man of the homeland". As result of the talks, the Habsburg Empire transformed into a dualist state federation comprising Austria and Hungary in 1867. The two equal parts of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy obtained complete sovereignty in domestic affairs. Their respective parliaments independently accepted laws that were approved by Francis Joseph I as emperor in Vienna and as king in Budapest, and were carried out by two separate cabinets. Foreign affairs,
defence and their financing remained under joint control. The Compromise led to constitutionalism and a return of most of the achievements of 1848 for the Hungarians and the Austrian Germans, the two dominant national groups in the empire.

The next near half a century saw an unprecedented economic and cultural boom in Hungary accompanied by political stability. The first modern parliamentary system - albeit with narrow electoral rights, amid conservative frameworks, and ever more sluggishly keeping pace with the requirements dictated by social mobility, and not according the claims of the national minorities making up half of the population in both parts of the Empire - operated in a predictable manner. National minorities, realizing the rigidity of the system, ultimately worked to break it up - prospects for which were favourably influenced by the establishment of independent Balkan states exercising a major impact on the southern Slav and Romanian inhabitants of the Monarchy.

The different political crises emerging at the turn of the century were, however, overshadowed by increasing material and intellectual welfare, which also went to those who were left outside the bulwarks of political power. The Hungary of the "happy times of peace" was transformed by the industrial revolution from a backward agrarian country into a relatively progressive agrarian-industrial country. National income tripled, the urban population rose from 10 per cent of the total
population to one-third, and by contemporary standards it had a
moderninfrastructure and burgeoning bourgeois culture. In 1896, an exhibition staged to mark the thousandth anniversary of the settlement of the Magyar tribes in the Carpathian Basin paid worthy tribute to these achievements in Budapest which by then was a metropolis of a million residents.

From War to War (1914-1945)

World War One put an end to the prosperity. The ethnic problems of the Habsburg monarchy became an ace in the hands of its rivals, the Entente powers, which gave shelter to the emigrant national councils of the minorities and recognized them as their allies. In the autumn of 1918, with the military collapse of the German-Austrian-Hungarian military alliance this elicited a threat to the territorial integrity of historic Hungary: Transylvania was demanded by Romania, the Southern counties by the then forming Yugoslav state, and Upper Hungary by the Czechoslovak state.

At this critical juncture a revolution broke out in Budapest in October 1918. A republic was proclaimed, headed by Count Mihly Krolyi. The trauma caused by the defeat, the disruption of the economy, and the attack by the small Entente countries, however, could not be offset by the then started democratic social reform. The discontent of the masses was fomented further by Bolshevik agitators freshly trained and just back from Russian prison camps. Mihly Krolyi found himself in an impossible situation, and finally handed over power in March 1919 to the
Communist Hungarian Republic of Councils headed by the Bolshevik Bla Kun. During its short-lived three month rule the Republic of Councils aimed to implement its social programs through nationalization and revolutionary terror, while continuing its struggle for the territorial integrity of the country. Its collapse was elicited by Czech and Romanian intervention rather than the counterrevolution organized under Mikls Horthy.

With the short Romanian occupation, and the white terror that replaced the red terror over, a national assembly was convened as a result of elections, which formally restored the kingdom and elected Mikls Horthy as regent. In June 1920 the new regime signed the terms dictated by the victorious great powers in the Trianon /Versailles/ Peace Treaty, a move which represented the de facto acknowledgement of the dissolution of historical Hungary.

The Hungary of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, with its nationality problems and political conservatism, were things of the past, but the new order sanctioned by the Versailles peace system did nothing to resolve the ethnic tensions in the region, while dissolving a well operating economic and cultural unit which had played a major role in the European balance of power.

The equitable principle of national self-determination as specified in the Trianon Peace Treaty was unilaterally applied to the detriment ofHungary. Hungary lost two-thirds of its original territory, and more than half of its population. As opposed to its new neighbors, Hungary became a virtually homogenous nation state, while one-third of the Hungarian population, in total more than three million Hungarians, became an ethnic minority in several neighbouring successor states. This not only determined the prospects for an already disrupted national economy, but also the political future: no political factor aspiring for domestic success could renounce revisionist claims in the era between the two world wars.

Reforms introduced by the deeply conservative Horthy regime - which retained essential parliamentary elements - did little to modernize the backward social structure. Some particularly outstanding politicians - Pl Teleki, Istvn Bethlen - thanks to their personal proficiency managed to achieve domestic consolidation, slight economic growth, a breakthrough in foreign policy isolation, and the faint hope of a partial peaceful revision by the late 1920s. On the threshold of the 1930s, however, the world economic depression restricted Hungary's opportunities. The recession concluded the process started by the Versailles peace process, with the break-up of the economic, social and cultural unity of the Danube states: by encouraging national seclusion it aided political extremists, and in the resulting power vacuum it facilitated the penetration of those major powers interested in the region. As for Hungary which
blamed Trianon for its difficulties andyearned for a revision of the Treaty, this meant closer ties with Germany and Italy.

Hungary's reward for joining the Axis powers was to have the Hungarian-inhabited areas in Czechoslovakia and Romania re-annexed after the start of Nazi aggression /1938-1940/. Those favors, however, prevented it from staying out of World War II, and from rejecting in 1941 its involvement in the invasion of Yugoslavia. The Hungarian government showed more readiness in the war against the Soviet Union while, particularly after suffering massive defeats on the eastern front, the traditional elite which had harboured mixed feelings about the Nazi movement, sought an agreement with the Western powers. On learning about the true feelings of this "involuntary satellite" German troops occupied the country on March 19, 1944. After manipulating a puppet government to carry out the mass deportation of the overwhelming majority of the Hungarian Jewry it foiled Horthy's attempt to quit the war, and unleashed a rule of terrorby the Hungarian Nazis, the Arrow Cross. Meantime the
Red Army was surging ahead and the entire country was transformed into a military theatre by the spring of 1945, as a result of total defeat, the old system and state sovereignty itself collapsed: a million-strong army was stationed in the shattered country. Its leaders made promises to guarantee self-rule - although as became known later on the 1945 Yalta conference grouping the great powers had already decided among themselves that Hungary, together with its neighbors, would belong to the Soviet sphere of influence...

Versions of Socialism (1945-1987)

The first three years after World War II saw an attempt to operate a multi-party democracy in militarily occupied Hungary. Winners of the 1945 elections the Independent Smallholders Party, a collective party of the middle class and peasants, at the behest of the great powers entered into a coalition with the social democrats, the National Peasant Party, and the communists. The latter under the leadership of Mtys Rkosi displayed no inhibitions in exploiting the protection provided by the occupying Soviet troops. In a spirit of national cohesion the coalition achieved some remarkable results in reconstruction, and by implementing land reforms made the centuries-old dreams of the Hungarian peasantry a reality, but even then the nationalization of private enterprises and introduction of certain elements of a Stalinist-type command economy began. By the time the country had recovered from the shocks of the war the communists, by dividing their coalition partners, engaging in political blackmail, and benefiting from the political police they had control over, instigated an election fraud, annihilated their rivals and rose to become the only political force in the country by 1947-1948. Their status was further strengthened by the "eternal friendship treaty" concluded with the Soviet Union and the "Stalinist" constitution of 1949.

The Stalinist dictatorship introduced by Rkosi between 1948 and 1953 concluded nationalization and launched a rush programs for the development of heavy industry, obliging peasants to turn in their crops and join kolhoz-type co-operatives which expropriated their lands. "Enemies" of the regime and numbering tens of thousands of people were deported to the countryside or sent to do forced labour, and innocent people were convicted in show trials built on trumped up charges. In the period following the death of Stalin /1953/ the terror was eased under the rule of the government of reformer Imre Nagy, and a process to reveal abuses began. The population of Hungary heaved a sigh of relief before general bitterness set in once again following the Rkosi cliques return to political power.

The 9th Congress staged by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956, suggested the end of the harsh Stalinist times. As a result of the development that opened the possibility of democratization, resistance to the totalitarian regime broke out with elementary force in Hungary, and led to the revolution of October 23, 1956. Imre Nagy, popular throughout the country because of the 1953 reform he had initiated, took over as head of the revolutionary government. The multi-party system was restored and Hungary quit the Warsaw Treaty, the east bloc military alliance. However, after some vacillation the Soviet government opted in favor of intervention, and on November 4 it brutally crushed the revolution. Some 200, 000 refugees left a country shocked to its very core, while the era hallmarked by Jnos Kdr who was appointed to head the reorganized communist party as the puppet of the
Soviets, entrencheditself with an unprecedented wave of reprisals.

However, the experience of the 1956 revolution made clear for the communist power that there was no return to the methods of governing and state of the "fifties". Thus the new regime, having restored "law and order", consolidated its position by granting an amnesty and launching reforms in the 1960s, obtaining for Hungary the dubious title of "happiest barracks" among the countries of the Soviet bloc. In addition, as industrialization and collectivization were carried out peacefully and gradually more attention was paid to the manufacture of consumer items, which was only encouraged by the so-called "new economic mechanism", that is reforms introduced from 1968 granting greater scope of operation to private enterprises. However, there was a political price to pay for the rise in living standards: the power monopoly of the Hungarian Socialist Workers Party and its relationship with the Soviet Union - that is the country's
limited sovereignty - remained taboo. The increasingly flexible censorship narrowed the sphere of banned, and expanded that of supported and tolerated intellectual works, and the "soft dictatorship" while continuing to impose strict checks opened the western gates of the country to incoming foreigners as well as to Hungarians seeking to travel abroad.

Although these concessions - particularly when comparing Hungary's fate to that of neighboring countries - afforded a certain legitimacy to the Kdr regime which had taken power through brutal force, by the 1980s their limitations were apparent. The reforms proved insufficient to ensure economic growth, and so the semblance of prosperity was maintained from foreign loans and at the cost of pilling up massive debts for the country, and even then only with great difficulty. The unstated deal appeared ever more unjustified: surrender political rights in exchange for material welfare. Finally, on Mikhail Gorbachev taking control of the communist party in Moscow, the external pressure also eased.

Tourism

For its wonderful scenic values, Budapest, the capital city of Hungary - the ?gem of the Danube' - is included in the World Heritage list of UNESCO. Hungary has the largest surface thermal water supply - after Iceland - and the hundreds of thermal springs enable thousands of people to cure a variety of conditions. Lake Balaton, the largest lake in Central Europe, is a paradise for families with small children, fans of sailing and those who simply like to spend their vacation near a lake.
Time zone: CET: GMT + 1 hourSummer daylight savings: March to September + 1 hour Currency: HUF Coins: HUF 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200Banknotes: HUF 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10 000, 20 000Voltage: 220 V
Telephone, fax: International telephone area code of Hungary: 36, Budapest: 1International calls: 00 + country code + phone number Domestic long distance calls: 06 + area code + local phone number
Aid services: General aid: 112 Ambulance: 104 Police: 107 Fire department: 105 Enquiry: 198, International enquiry: 199 Special enquiry: 197
Budapest phone numbers are comprised of seven digits, rural ones are comprised of 8 digits.
Public phones use HUF 10, 20, 50 or 100 coins or phone cards. Other information on entering and staying in Hungary: Internet: Magyar Turizmus Rt.Telephone:
Automated telephone line from abroad: +36 60 55 00 44
From Hungary: 06 80 66 00 44
Non stop TOURINFORM phone line: + 36 1 438 80 80

Health Tourism

Hungary is extremely rich in thermal waters, its thermal water reserve is significant on a world scale and on European scale it is outstanding. Most of the mineral and medicinal waters contain dissolved minerals endows them with curative powers, and makes them suitable for bathing and drinking cures.

Currently there are more than a thousand wells in Hungary that give + 30C hot water most of which is medicinal water. Medicinal waters can be found in almost all regions of Hungary about three-quarters of the wells are located in the Great Hungarian Plain.

Among the 150 hot water spa baths of the country there are 36 special medicinal baths in which the water contains radioactivity, sulphurous acid, salt bromine carbonate or iodine. Europe's only cave-spa is in Northeast Hungary, in Tapolca, while Hvz lake near lake Balaton is the best known hot water (33 C) medicinal-water lake in Europe. For decades Budapest has been enjoying the name "the world's spa capital". Some of its baths had been already operating during the Turkish occupation (16th-17th centuries). There are some two dozen baths and 13 spas in the capital.

Hungary's mineral water production was 358 million litres in 2000.

Our well-known spa baths

The Berekfrd Spa Bath
This settlement, which has 1100 permanent residents is situated 50 kilometres from Debrecen near the Hortobgy National Park and was put on the map by the well drilled by Ferenc Pvai Vajna in 1928-30. The water output of the spring that feeds the 56C, alkali hydrogen carbonated, iodised thermal water is 1.5 cubic metres per minute. The thermal water also contains chloride, bromide, fluoride, sodium and
calcium. The bath has great effect on patients with gynaecological, rheumatic and locomotor diseases (spinal, knee-joint, hip joint sclerosis) and it is also good for posttraumatic extended care.

Bk
The Bk Spa Bath, well-known all over Europe, has developed to be one of Hungary's most remarkable spa baths in the second half of the century. The medicinal water welling up from a depth of 1282 metres is classed among the calcium magnesium hydrogen carbonated thermal waters; it provides an excellent cure for all kinds of locomotor disorders.

Debrecen
The Debrecen Spa Bath is located in a 37-acre wild oak-grove park. In the spa the visitor can have the choice of more than 40 different types of qualified treatments in the indoor and outdoor pools with different temperatures. The alkali chloric, hydrogen carbonated water is used against different diseases like chronic arthritis, chondritis, orthopaedic deformation, post traumatic extended care, certain, heart and circulatory
disturbances, numerous gynaecological troubles and nervous complaints.
The medical and recreational cures are available in one-, two- and three-week turns.

Dombvr-Gunaras
The Gunaras Thermal Baths and Swimming Pool is 70 kilometres from Lake Balaton and 50 kilometres from Pcs and the Mecsek mountains. Its 55C mineral water is alkali hydrogen carbonated thermal water and has a quite significant fluoride content. The water is suitable for curing locomotor disorders, gastralgia, bowel complaints, choleopathia, gynaecological troubles, gum and oral affections. The cures can be
successful also in case of certain breathing, heart and circulatory deformations and in the field of dermatology. The spa bath welcomes those who like to be healed with physiotherapeutic and balneotherapeutic accessories, all-round therapeutic services, sauna and solarium and with trained masseurs all year.

Gyula
Gyula is a nice resort in the Southeast of the country 220 kilometres from Budapest. The thermal water of its castle-bath contains alkali hydrogen carbonate chloride. The 72C water rushing up from six deep-bored wells has a high mineral content and is providing healing in the case of locomotor diseases, local nervous complaints, post traumatic extended care, aches from an acid stomach, gynaecological inflammatory troubles. Guests seeking for healing, recreation and sports can choose from 18
pools. Besides that they can try mudpack, magnetotherapic treatment, galvanic bath, inhalatorium treatment, effervescent bath, tangentor treatment or medical swimming.

Hajdszoboszl
The medicinal thermal water of this 70 year-old world-famous thermal bath is welling up from 1100 metres to fill the pools with mineral water of different temperatures. The spa bath open throughout the whole year is offering a wide selection of physiotherapeutic and balneotherapeutic treatments for the patients.

Harkny
The 180 year-old Harkny Baths and Swimming Pool is often called "The Heaven of the Rheumatic". The spa bath founded by the Batthyny family is nowadays a family bath welcoming not only the guests who want to be healed but also those who like bathing and relaxing any time of the year.

Hvz
The Hvz lake with its 47, 500 square metres is one of the best-known spa resorts in Europe. The lake is fed by a thermal spring that was born in a very early geological stage. The spring supplies about 20, 000 litres of water every minute so the water of the lake is renewed within every 72 hours. The temperature of the medicinal water is 33-35C during the summer and doesn't go under 26C even during the cold winter days. The
mud covering the bottom of the lake is especially curative it occupies an intermediate position between the pure inorganic mud and the fango, which has a high organic matter content. The mixture of the mud and the thermal water is an ideal substance of mudpack.

Kiskunmajsa
The utilisation of the 72C sodium hydrogen carbonated thermal water, which was the secondary product of hydrocarbon mining from the 60's, started with the building of outdoor swimming pools in 1983. The impressive timbered hall that now houses a 36 C and a 38 C thermal pool, a 25 metre long swimming pool with a smaller cold water pool, the sauna and the solarium was built later. One of the outdoor pools is a spa
pool the other one is a 75 metre wide and 100 metre long large swimming pool.

Oroshza-Gyoprosfrd
Lake Gyopros that was referred to as the Pearl of the Hungarian Plain by the period press was pronounced to be a spa bath in 1869. The 40-50C water of the thermal pools of the spa bath is fed by two deep bored wells. The natural alkali and hydrogen carbonated water is used against different diseases like locomotor and arthritic diseases, rheumatic and gynaecological troubles. The covered spa pool that is open
all the year is 356 square metres large and includes 8 tub baths as well. Beside that there is an outdoor spa pool as well to satisfy the demand of the visitors.

Sifok-Igal
The thermal bath is located in the valley of Igal, 35 kilometres from lake Balaton, 25 kilometres from Kaposvr, in mild down which is typical in Somogy County. The 76C water is welling up from a depth of 651 metres is supplying the pools with different temperature thermal water. In the area of the Igal Baths there are nine pools offering entertainment and recovery for the guests.

Trkeve
This spa bath is located 160 kilometres from Budapest. The 72C thermal water of the medical pool is ideal for healing chronic rheumatism, arthritis, skin and gynaecological diseases and for posttraumatic extended care.

Zalakaros
This 800 years old settlement, which is just 20 kilometres from lake Balaton, became well-known worldwide 35 years ago when thermal water was explored here. The 96C thermal water, which was found during an exploratory drilling for hydrocarbons, proved to be very effective in healing chronic gynaecological troubles, paradentitis, chronic arthritis and in the after-treatment of patients suffering from orthopaedic, nerve-surgical and
surgical locomotor disorders. While the indoor baths are open throughout the year the outdoor thermal baths operate seasonally.

Budapest

Gellrt Thermal Baths and Swiming Pool

Kirly Thermal Baths and Swimming Pool

Lukcs Thermal Baths and Swimming Pool

Palatinus Open Bath

Rudas Thermal Baths and Swimming Pool

Szchenyi Thermal Baths and Swimming Pool

Famous Hungarian Personalities of the 20th Century

Bartk, Bla

Nagyszentmikls, 25 March 1881 - New York, 26 September 1945

Composer, pianist.

His life's work is of determining importance from the point of view of both the Hungarian and the universal history of music. From 1906 he collected Hungarian and nationality folk music in various parts of the country for a period of ten years. As a result of their journeys together with Zoltn Kodly, aimed at collecting folk music, they disclosed an immense wealth, they incorporated folk melodies and rhythms into their works. Bartk was professor at the piano department of the Academy of Music between 1907 and 1934. He also published his folk song monographs and studies during this period. During his first period as a composer, he made himself heard composing piano and orchestral pieces, as well as through his String Quartet No. 1.

An important work of his is the opera entitled Bluebeard's Castle and the theatrical pieces Wooden Prince and The Miraculous Mandarine. His most fertile period stretched from 1920 through the 1930s, it was during these years that his mature musical tongue developed. Major works of art created during this period are: a violin concerto, two piano concertos, a choral piece with orchestral accompaniment, Cantata Profana, Music for string and percussion instruments and celesta, a Sonata for two pianos and percussion instruments and the Divertimento. He had immense success as a concert pianist, as well. He had concerts in almost all European countries, as well as in the Soviet Union and in the United States. He immigrated to the United States in 1940, fleeing from fascism. In the US he wrote the Concerto, the Violin Solo Sonata dedicated to Yehudi Menuhin and he completed the Piano Concerto No. 3 in 1945 save for a few beats. Bartk's music is regarded among the world's classics. His worldly remains were returned to Hungary in 1988 and were buried in Budapest on 7 July.

Erds, Pl

Budapest, 26 March 1913 - Warsaw, 20 September 1996.

Mathematician

From 1934 he lived abroad apart from minor interruptions, he did not, however, have a permanent residence: he did not bear to stay in one place, not in one flat, or in one city, one country or even on the same continent for a long period of time. He felt just as much at home in England as in the United States, or in Budapest, in his home country. He contributed to the development of mathematics in the widest-ranging areas not only with his mathematical discoveries but also with his intriguingly inspiring personality. He focused on number theory, on the theory of sets and on the calculation of probabilities. With his research into number theory he established the so-called Hungarian school. During his lifetime he was the greatest representative of the application of the combinatorical method.

In 1983 he received the highest international award, the Wolf- Prize, equivalent to the Nobel-Prize. For his work he was elected honorary member of a number of foreign academies of sciences. In Hungary he was awarded the Kossuth and the State Awards. He published some 1500 articles, he co-operated with 450 co-authors and was a honorary doctor at 15 universities. He held that "Everything human, whether good or bad, shall eventually come to an end. Except mathematics. "

Jancs, Mikls

Vc, 27 September 1921 -

Film director, the representative of the so-called Hungarian film school.

Following legal studies, he studied folklore and art history at the University of Cluj. Between 1946 and 1950 he concluded his studies at the film director faculty of the Budapest College of Theatrical and Film Arts. He shot his first feature film entitled A harangok Rmba mentek (The Bells Have Gone to Rome) in 1958. His next film, Olds s kts (Cantata), was completed in 1963, the film gy jttem (My Way Home) in 1964. The film entitled Szegnylegnyek (The Round-Up) is a peculiar interpretation of the history of a 19th century outlaw, this film was followed by Csend s kilts (Silence and Cry), Csillagosok, katonk (The Red and The White) and by the film Fnyes szelek (The Confrontation).

Mikls Jancs developed a characteristic film language, characterised by unusually long sets, sweeping horizontal camera movements, as well as by the strong visual composition of the images. The portrayal through film tools of the relationship between the individual and power, the power and the community is present throughout his life's work. He lived in Italy during the 1970s where he also made several films (La pacifista, Vices and Pleasures). The films Mg kr a np (Red Psalm) and Allegro Barbaro completed in 1971 mark the beginning of his new period as a director. The film Szerelmem, Elektra (Electreia) also belongs to this period. From 1975 he was also active as a theatrical director. In the films shot during the 1980s and 1990s he once again adopted new film making tools (Szrnyek vadja (Season of Monsters), Jzus Krisztus horoszkpja (Jesus Christ's Horoscope) , Kk Duna kering (Blue Danube Waltz), Nekem lmpst adott kezembe az r Pesten (The Lord's Lantern in Budapest) , Anyd!...A sznyogok (Damn You! The Mosquitoes), Utols vacsora az Arabs Szrknl (Last Supper at the Arabian Grey Horse)).

He won the Kossuth Prize and the title Outstanding Artist. He was awarded the Prize for his Life's Work in Cannes in 1979, at the Venice Film Festival in 1990 and at the Hungarian Feature Film Show in 1994. Since 1988 he has been a professor at the College of Theatrical and Film Arts, he taught at Harvard University between 1990 and 1992.

Kodly, Zoltn

Kecskemt, 16 December 1882 - Budapest, 6 March 1967

Composer, folk music researcher.

His work as folk song collector began in 1905. In 1907 he was appointed lecturer at the Academy of Music where he taught music history and composing. His own works were first published in 1910. In 1919 he participated in the work of the musical directorium, for which later a disciplinary procedure was initiated against him, his appointment was declared null and void and he could no longer teach. His isolation came to an end with the international success of Psalmus Hungaricus in 1923 and his musical comedy entitled Hry Jnos became a success the world over in 1926. His musical piece Szkelyfon was presented in 1932. Further works of Kodly include: Marosszki tncok (1927-1930) (Marosszek Dances), Nyri este (1927) (Summer Evening), Galntai tncok (1933) (Galanta Dances), Budavri Te Deum (Buda Te Deum)- to the 250th anniversary of the liberation of Buda (1936), Flszllott a pva (1939)
(The Peacock Is Flying) and Concerto (1940). His activity of music history was also of importance, his monograph entitled Hungarian Folk Music was published in 1937. During the Second World War he protected the persecuted but later had to go into hiding himself. He created Missa brevis in 1945. He was involved in the democratic rebirth and became the chairman of the board of directors of the Academy of Music. Between 1946 and 1949 he was the president of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Of his work, Czinka Panna was first shown in 1948, Kllai ketts was presented in 1951. Between 1951 and 1967 the first volume of the Treasury of Hungarian Folk Music was published and his views and ideas were manifest in musical education, as well.

His work earned him the Kossuth Prize in 1948 and in 1952. He made an important contribution to the study of folklore, music history, music aesthetics, music criticism, as well as to that of literary history, linguistics and the cultivation of the language. He spent his entire life fighting for the musical education of the youth, including the teaching of singing in schools, and the basic function of musical reading and writing as part of the curriculum and the cultivation of choir music based on Hungarian elements. The Kodly method is today well-known and practised in musical education throughout the world.

Krmn, Tdor

Budapest, 11 May 1881-Aachen, 7 May 1963

Physician

He earned a degree in mechanical engineering at the Budapest Technical University. Subsequently, he studied in Germany with a fellowship. He earned his doctorate degree in Gttingen and worked until 1912 as a university lecturer. During World War I, he was a research engineer at the aviation corps, where together with his colleagues he prepared the world's first military helicopter, known in aviation history as PKZ. Following World War I, he was one of the founders of the German Luftwaffe and was a special advisor of the Junkers Works. In 1929 he was invited to the United States where he became involved in rocket research. Following his research into aerodynamics conducted in Pasadena, Krmn was heralded as the father of supersonic aviation the world over.

He was the father and the first director of the world organisation of space research serving peaceful purposes entitled International Astronautical Academy. From 1951 he was also chairman of NATO's aviation research and development council. He acted as consultant throughout the world in the fields of aerodynamics, aircraft engineering, aeronautics and astronautics, as well as of space traffic. He played a leading role in the development of the bomber aircrafts B-36, B-47 and B-52, as well as in the development of the Atlas, Titan and Minuteman rockets. In 1963 he was the first one in the world to receive the highest scientific award of the United States, the National Medal of Science, which was awarded to him by President John F. Kennedy personally. After his death, a crater of the Moon and of the Mars each were named after him and the postal service of the United States issued a stamp commemorating Theodore von Krmn in 1991.

Neumann, Jnos

Budapest, 28 December 1903- Washington, 8 February 1957

Mathematician, the "father" of computers.

Jnos Neumann achieved considerable results in several scientific areas. He laid the foundation for set theory and developed the mathematical theory of games, which later served as the basis for operation research. He earned a Ph.D. in mathematics at the age of twenty-six at the Budapest University and a year later he was already lecturer at Princeton University in the United States. During the first decades of his work, he focused mostly on theoretical issues, after 1940, however, he turned increasingly to issues of application. He played a major role in the research related to the release of atomic energy; from 1954 until his death he was a member of the Atomic Energy Commission of the United States. His research results were published in some 150 publications. During his last years, he turned his attention to the issues of biological auto-reproduction.

His name is best known in the context of computer technology. It was upon his recommendations that the oscilloscope used for maintenance and construction was converted to display and, as a result - for the first time in the history of technology - the computer produced results in a visible form. It was John von Neumann who discovered that computers are capable of storing not only data but operating instructions, i.e. programs, as well. He described this theory in 1945 and the first computer based on the Neumann principle was constructed in 1952. Today's computers are based on this principle.

Pusks Ferenc

Budapest, 2 April 1927-17 November 2006

Football player, captain of the "Golden Team"

As a forward, he was a determining character of the legendary Hungarian Golden Team. In 1952 he was a member of the gold medal winner Hungarian national team in Helsinki, in November 1953 he scored two goals in London at the famous match won by the Hungarian team at 6:3 and later won the silver medal with the team at the World Championship in 1954 held in Switzerland. He played on the national team eighty five times and scored 84 goals. At the end of October 1956 he travelled to an official game of the European Champions' Cup with his team, Budapesti Honvd and after the expiry of his official permit he also participated in a South American tour. Subsequently he did not return to Hungary but established his residence in Spain.

He played on the team of Real Madrid and between 1958 and 1967 scored 324 goals in 372 games and won the European Champions' Cup, as well as the Intercontinental Cup. He played on the Spanish national team four times and also played once on the European team. From 1969 Ferenc Pusks worked as a trainer. He achieved his best result with the Greek club Panathinaikos during the season 1970-1971, when the team became second in the Cup of European Champions. In 1993 for four months he was the captain of the Hungarian national team. In 1997 the International Olympic Committee awarded him with the Olympic Merit Award. At the beginning of 1997 he received an award at the "Football Gala of the Century" in Munich based on the data of the German organisation keeping record of the statistics and history of football as - representing Kispest, Budapesti Honvd and Real Madrid - he was the one to score most goals in the world: 489 at first-class championship games.

In 1999 he received the title Honorary Ambassador of Hungarian Sports. In 2001 he was elected the best Hungarian male sportsman of the 20th century at the voting organised by Nemzeti Sport under the auspices of the Hungarian Olympic Committee.

Rubik, Ern

Budapest, 13 July 1944.-

Engineer, inventor, the creator of the "magic cube".

Ern Rubic graduated as an architect and later studied interior architecture. Subsequently he worked as architect-designer and between 1970 and 1988 was a lecturer at the College of Applied Arts. From 1987 he has been titular professor. He created the game ?Magic Cube" in 1975. The cube conquered the entire world and in 1980-1981 became the Game of the Year in a number of countries, moreover, cube turning world championships were also organised. In 1983 Ern Rubik established his own workshop, Rubik Stdi which he has been managing ever since. He invented a number of other games, as well, such as, for example, the magic snake, these, however, widespread as they are, have not managed to surpass the popularity of the Magic Cube.

In 1988 he established the Rubik International Foundation, since 1990 he has been the chairman of the Hungarian Academy of Engineers and since 1996 he has been the honorary chairman. In 1983 he received the State Award, in 1995 he was awarded the Gbor Dnes Prize for his life's work and innovation activity. Lately he has turned his attention to computers. He is searching for possibilities that can bring about changes in the relationship between the computer and its user.

[[ct]]: Grey Water Stats

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